Ayatollah Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini stands as one of the most transformative — and controversial — figures in 20th-century Middle Eastern history. From religious scholar to revolutionary leader, Khomeini reshaped Iranian politics, challenged Western influence, and established a theocratic system that has defined the Islamic Republic for over four decades. His life story spans humble beginnings, ideological development, exile, triumphant return, and the creation of a radically new state — culminating in his death in 1989 after a decade at the helm of Iran’s theocratic order.
Rise: From Scholar to Revolutionary
Ruhollah Khomeini was born into a clerical family in Khomeyn, in central Iran. Although sources vary slightly on his exact birth year, most place it in the early 20th century. He entered religious education at a young age and rose through the ranks of Shi’a scholarship, eventually earning the title of marja’ — a high authority in Shia jurisprudence and theology. As a respected religious teacher and author of more than 40 works on Islamic law, Khomeini’s influence was rooted in his deep religious credentials.
His opposition to the rule of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi began in earnest in the 1960s. The Shah’s aggressive programme of modernisation — known as the White Revolution — aimed at rapid social, economic and legal change, including land reforms and expanded rights for women. To Khomeini, these reforms threatened traditional Islamic values and clerical authority, undermining the socio-religious foundations of Iranian society. As his criticism grew sharper, he came into direct conflict with the Shah’s regime, was arrested in 1963, and subsequently exiled by 1964.
Exile did not silence him. First in Turkey and for many years in Najaf, Iraq, Khomeini continued his religious studies while cultivating a broad network of followers — both clerical and lay. It was during these years that he refined his theory of velayat-e faqīh — the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist — which argued that Islamic jurists should hold political as well as religious authority. This intellectual framework would become the constitutional basis of the Islamic Republic.
Revolution and Reign: The Birth of an Islamic Republic
Discontent with the Shah’s rule intensified throughout the 1970s. Economic strains, political repression and cultural dislocation fuelled widespread unrest. By late 1978, pacific demonstrations had transformed into mass protests and strikes across Iranian cities. Khomeini’s messages, smuggled into Iran from exile — particularly from Paris, where he relocated in late 1978 — galvanised the population. His calls for the end of monarchy united disparate social groups: clerics, students, urban workers, and middle-class professionals.
When the Shah fled Iran in January 1979, it was a stark indication that the old order had collapsed. Khomeini returned to Tehran on 1 February 1979, greeted by millions of supporters, a moment often seen as the definitive triumph of the Iranian Revolution. Within days, the provisional government crumbled and the monarchy was formally abolished. A referendum held in March 1979 overwhelmingly approved the establishment of an Islamic Republic, and Khomeini became the nation’s first Supreme Leader — a position combining both spiritual and political authority, and cemented in Iran’s new constitution.
As Supreme Leader, Khomeini wielded immense power. He appointed key officials, oversaw the judiciary and armed forces, and shaped both domestic and foreign policy. His vision reshaped Iran’s legal and cultural systems according to Islamic principles: alcohol was banned, Western cultural influences were restricted, and clerics held significant bureaucratic authority. The Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) was established to safeguard the revolution and suppress opposition.
Khomeini’s foreign policy also had far-reaching impact. The novation of the United States as the “Great Satan” and Israel as the “Little Satan” became central to the Islamic Republic’s ideological posture. Iran’s support for anti-Western and anti-Israel movements throughout the Middle East followed from his worldview. Domestically, dissent was less tolerated: opposition parties were banned or marginalised, and many critics were imprisoned or executed during the early years of the regime.
The Islamic Republic under Khomeini faced extraordinary turmoil, including the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives. Despite the immense cost, Khomeini retained control, using the war to deepen his narrative of resistance and sacrifice. By war’s end, Iran remained sovereign but economically battered, and Khomeini’s stature as both a spiritual and political leader was firmly established.
Demise: Death and Legacy
After a decade as Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini’s health began to decline. He suffered a series of heart attacks, and in June 1989, at approximately age 89, he died in Tehran. His funeral drew millions of mourners, becoming one of the largest mass gatherings in Iranian history — underscoring his profound symbolic influence on the nation.
Khomeini’s death did not end his influence. The system he founded — anchored in the principle of velayat-e faqīh — continued. His successor, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, was chosen by the Assembly of Experts to carry forward the theocratic framework. Khomeini’s tomb in the Behesht-e Zahra cemetery became a shrine for supporters and remains a potent symbol of the revolution.
His legacy is deeply contested. To many Iranians and supporters abroad, he stands as a champion of social justice and resistance against Western domination. For critics, his rule institutionalised authoritarian religious governance that suppressed political pluralism and individual freedoms. Regardless of interpretation, Khomeini’s impact on Iran — and on broader Middle Eastern politics — is undeniable. His articulation of religious authority in governance transformed a nation and set a model that continues to influence debates about religion, modernity and statehood in the Islamic world.
Conclusion
The life of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini embodies the dramatic upheavals of 20th-century Iran. From student of Islam to revolutionary leader, he guided the overthrow of a monarchy, founded a new political order, and redefined the relationship between religion and state. His tenure as Iran’s first Supreme Leader established the enduring institutions of the Islamic Republic — institutions that have shaped not only Iran’s politics but also the broader contours of regional and global geopolitics. That legacy, born of revolution and sustained through religious authority, remains at the heart of Iran’s political identity today.
